Domination by the product in Capital
1. [Capitalism is] a social formation in which the process of production has the mastery over man, instead of the opposite (Marx, Capital vol. 1, Penguin, p. 175)
2. [Value] is constantly changing from one form into the other without becoming lost in this movement; it thus becomes transformed into an automatic subject. (Capital vol. 1, p. 255)
3. Every kind of capitalist production, in so far as it is not only a labour-process, but also a capital’s process of valorisation, has this in common, [that] it is not the worker that employs the conditions of his work, but rather the reverse, the conditions of work employ the worker. But it is only with the coming of machinery that this inversion for the first time acquires a technical and palpable reality. Owing to its conversion into an automaton, the instrument of labour confronts the worker during the labour process in the shape of capital, dead labour, which dominates and soaks up living labour-power. (Capital vol. 1, p. 548)
4. [The capitalist mode of production is] a mode of production in which the labourer exists to satisfy the need of the existing values for valorisation, as opposed to the inverse situation, in which objective wealth is there to satisfy the worker’s own need for development. Just as man is governed, in religion, by the products of his own brain, so in capitalist production, he is governed by the products of his own hand. (Capital vol. 1, p. 772)
Atomisation in Capital
5. Objects of utility become commodities only because they are products of the labour of private individuals who work independently of each other [...] Since the producers do not come into social contact until they exchange the products of their labour, the specific social characteristics of their own private labours appear only within this exchange. In other words the labour of the private individual manifests itself as an element of the total labour of society only through the relations which the act of exchange establishes between the products, and, through their mediation, between the producers. (Capital vol. 1, p. 165)
6. [In commodity production] men are henceforth related to each other in a purely atomistic way. Their own relations of production therefore assume a thinglike [sachlichen] shape which is independent of their control and their conscious individual action. (Capital vol. 1, p. 187) (t.m.)
Externalization (Entäusserung) and estrangement (Entfremdung) in the 1844 writings
(NB I have modified the Marx: Early Writings, Feuerbach and Fichte translations so that Entäusserung is consistently translated as ‘externalization’, instead of ‘alienation’ in the Marx: Early Writings and instead of various terms in the English translations of Feuerbach and Fichte - AC.)
7. Selling [Veräusserung] is the praxis of externalization [Entäusserung]. Just as man, as long as he is in the grip of religion, is able to objectify his essence [Wesen] only by turning it into an alien [fremde] fantastic being [Wesen], so under the domination of egoistic need he can be active practically, and practically produce objects, only by putting his products, like his activity, under the domination of an alien being, and giving them the significance of an alien being – money. (Marx, On the Jewish Question, 1843, in Early Writings, p. 240) (t.m.)
8. This fact simply means that the object that labour produces, its product, stands opposed to it as something alien [fremd], as a power independent of the producer. The product of labour is labour embodied and made thinglike [sachlich] in an object, it is the objectification of labour. The realization of labour is its objectification. In the sphere of political economy, this realization of labour appears as a loss of reality for the worker, objectification as loss of and servitude [Knechtschaft] to the object, and appropriation as estrangement [Entfremdung], as externalization [Entäusserung]. (Marx, Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, 1844, in Early Writings, p. 324) (t.m.)
9. The externalization [Entäusserung] of the worker in his product means not only that his labour becomes an object, an external existence, but that it exists outside him, independently of him and alien [fremd] to him, and begins to confront him as an autonomous power; that the life which he has bestowed on the object confronts him as hostile and alien. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, p. 324)
10. So much does the appropriation of the object appear as estrangement that the more objects the worker produces the fewer can he possess and the more he falls under the domination of his product, of capital. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, p. 324)
11. So, even in the state of society most favourable to him, the inevitable consequence for the worker is [...] reduction to a machine, enslavement to capital which piles up in threatening opposition to him (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, p. 285)
12. Later, we shall see how the capitalist, by means of capital, exercises his power to command labour; but we shall then go on to see how capital, in its turn, is able to rule [herrschen] the capitalist himself. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, p. 295)
13. How could the product of the worker’s activity confront him as something alien [fremd] if it were not for the fact that in the act of production he was estranging [entfremdet] himself from himself? After all, the product is simply the resume of the activity, of the production. So if the product of labour is externalization, production itself must be active externalization, the externalization of activity, the activity of externalization. The estrangement of the object of labour merely summarizes the estrangement, the externalization in the activity of labour itself. | What constitutes the externalization of labour? | Firstly, the fact that labour is external to the worker – i.e., does not belong to his essence [Wesen]; that he, therefore, does not confirm himself in his work, but denies himself, feels miserable and not happy, does not develop free mental and physical energy, but mortifies his flesh and ruins his mind. Hence, the worker feels himself only when he is not working; when he is working, he does not feel himself. He is at home when he is not working, and not at home when he is working. His labour is, therefore, not voluntary but forced, it is forced labour [...] Just as in religion the spontaneous activity of the human imagination, the human brain, and the human heart, detaches itself from the individual and reappears as the alien activity of a god or of a devil, so the activity of the worker is not his own spontaneous activity. It belongs to another, it is a loss of his self. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, p. 326-7)
14. This relationship is the relationship of the worker to his own activity as something which is alien and does not belong to him, activity as passivity [Leiden], power as impotence, procreation as emasculation, the worker’s own physical and mental energy, his personal life – for what is life but activity? – as an activity directed against himself, which is independent of him and does not belong to him. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, p. 327)
15. Thus, through estranged, externalized labour, the worker creates the relationship of another man, who is alien to labour and stands outside it, to that labour. The relation of the worker to labour creates the relation of the capitalist – or whatever other word one chooses for the master of labour – to that labour. Private property is therefore the product, result, and necessary consequence of externalized labour, of the external relation of the worker to nature and to himself. | It is true that we took the concept of externalized labour (externalized life) from political economy as a result of the movement of private property. But it is clear from an analysis of this concept that, although private property appears as the basis and cause of externalized labour, it is in fact its consequence, just as the gods were originally not the cause but the effect of the confusion in men’s minds. Later, however, this relationship becomes reciprocal. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, pp. 331-2)
16. An immediate consequence of man’s estrangement from the product of his labour, his life activity, his species-being, is the estrangement of man from man. When man confront himself, he also confronts other men. What is true of man’s relationship to his labour, to the product of his labour, and to himself, is also true of his relationship to other men, and to the labour and the object of the labour of other men [...] Man’s estrangement, like all relationships of man to himself, is realized and expressed only in man’s relationship to other men. (Economical and Philosophical Manuscripts, pp. 329-30)
Externalization and estrangement in Feuerbach
17. The more subjective, the more human God is the more man externalizes [entäussert] his subjectivity, his humanity, because God is in reality the externalized self of man which he, however, reappropriates. (Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity,1841, ch. 1 sec. 2)
18. Why then dost thou externalize man’s consciousness from him, and make it the self-consciousness of a being distinct from man, of that which is an object to him? (The Essence of Christianity, ch. 23)
19. The activity, the grace of God is the externalized spontaneity of man, free will made objective. (The Essence of Christianity, ch. 25)
20. [R]eligion externalizes our own nature from us, and represents it as not ours. (The Essence of Christianity, ch. 25)
21. Just as theology divides and externalizes the human essence [Wesen] in order then to re-identify the externalized being [Wesen] with the human-being, so Hegel multiplies and splits up the simple, self-identical essence of nature and the human-being in order, then, to mediate forcibly what was forcibly separated. (Feuerbach, Philosophy of the Future, 1843, §20)
22. This is how Absolute [i.e. Hegelian -AC] Philosophy externalizes and estranges from man his own being and his own activity! (Philosophy of the Future, §23)
23. With the Christians God is nothing else than the immediate unity of species and individuality, of the universal and individual being. God is the idea of the species as an individual – the idea or essence of the species, which as a species, as universal being, as the totality of all perfections, of all attributes or realities, freed from all the limits which exist in the consciousness and feeling of the individual, is at the same time again an individual, personal being. Ipse suum esse est [He is his own being - AC]. Essence and existence are in God identical; which means nothing else than that he is the idea, the essence of the species, conceived immediately as an existence, an individual. [...] Because of this immediate unity of the species with individuality, this concentration of all that is universal and real in one personal being, God is a deeply moving object, enrapturing to the imagination; whereas the idea of humanity has little power over the feelings, because humanity is only an abstraction; and the reality which presents itself to us in distinction from this abstraction is the multitude of separate, limited individuals. (The Essence of Christianity, ch. 16)
24. The idea of God as a lawgiver through the moral law in us, is based on an externalization of what is ours, on translating something subjective into a being [Wesen] outside us; and this externalization is the real principle of religion, insofar as it is to be used for determining the will. (Fichte, Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation, 1792, tr. G. Green, p. 73)
25. All positing in general, and absolute positing in particular, is attributable to the I: the act which posits the present interplay itself proceeds from an absolute positing, and is thus an act of the I [...] The independent activity in question [i.e. the ‘interplay’ - AC] proceeds from the act of positing; but it is nonpositing that we actually arrive at: hence we may to that extent entitle the latter an externalization [...] The activity of externalization, as thus described, must have a passivity opposed to it; and such there is, indeed, in that a portion of absolute totality is externalized, is posited as not posited. (Fichte¸ The Science of Knowledge, 1794, tr. Heath and Lachs, p. 154) (t.m.)
26. Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself [eauton ekenosen], taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even death on a cross. (Philippians 2:6-7)
27. What distinguishes man from all those beings with which we are acquainted but which we do not designate as human? [...] Just as certainly as man is rational, he is his own end, that is, he does not exist because something else should exist. Rather, he exists simply because he should exist. His mere existence is the ultimate purpose of his existence [...] This quality of absolute being, of being for his own sake, is the characteristic feature, the determination or vocation of man, insofar as he is considered merely and solely as a rational being. (Fichte, Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, 1794, tr. D. Breazeale, p. 148)
28. [E]mpirical self-consciousness, that is, the consciousness of any specific determination or vocation within ourselves at all, is impossible apart from the presupposition of a not-I. This not-I must affect man’s passive faculty, which we call “sensibility.” Thus, to the extent that man is something [definite] he is a sensuous being. But according to what we have already said, man is a rational being at the same time, and his reason should not be canceled by his sensibility. [...] In this context the proposition “man is because he is” is transformed into the following: man ought to be what he is simply because he is. In other words, all that a person is ought to be related to his pure I, his mere being as an I. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, p. 148)
29. The will is of course free within its own domain, that is, in the realm of objects to which, once man has become acquainted with them, it can be related. [...] But feeling, as well as representation (which presupposes feeling), is not something free, but depends instead upon things external to the I – things whose characteristic feature is not identity at all, but rather multiplicity. If the I nevertheless ought always to be at one with itself in this respect too, then it must strive to act directly upon those very things upon which human feeling and representation depend. Man must try to modify these things. He must attempt to bring them into harmony with the pure form of the I [...] to modify things in accordance with our necessary concepts of how they should be. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, p. 149-50)
30. [M]an’s highest drive is the drive toward identity, toward complete harmony with himself, and – as a means for staying constantly in harmony with himself – toward the harmony of all external things with his own necessary concepts of them. It is not enough that his concepts not be contradicted [....] rather there really ought to be something which corresponds to these concepts. All of the concepts found within the I should have an expression or counterpart in the not-I. This is the specific character of man’s drive. | Man also possesses the concepts of reason and of rational action and thought. He necessarily wills, not merely to realize these concepts within himself, but to see them realized outside of him as well. One of the things that man requires is that rational beings like himself should exist outside of him. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, p. 155)
31. One of man’s fundamental drives is to be permitted to assume that rational beings like himself exist outside of him. He can assume this only on the condition that he enter into society [...] with these beings. Consequently, the social drive is one of man’s fundamental drives. It is man’s destiny to live in society; he ought to live in society. One who lives in isolation is not a complete human being. He contradicts his own self. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, p. 156)
32. According to what we have said, the positive distinguishing feature of society is free interaction. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, p. 157)
33. The social drive aims at interaction, reciprocal influence, mutual give and take, mutual passivity and activity. It does not aim at mere causality, at the sort of mere activity to which the other person would have to be related merely passively. It strives to discover free, rational beings outside of ourselves and to enter into community with them. It does not strive for the subordination characteristic of the physical world, but rather for coordination. If one does not permit the rational beings he seeks outside of himself to be free, then he is taking into account only their theoretical ability, but not their free practical rationality. Such a person does not wish to enter into society with these other free beings, but rather to master them as one masters talented beasts [...] He is not yet mature enough to have developed his own sense of freedom and spontaneity, for if he had then he would necessarily have to wish to be surrounded by other free beings like himself [...] The only person who is himself free is that person who wishes to liberate everyone around him. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, pp. 158-9)
34. I am acquainted with few ideas more lofty than this idea of the way the human species works upon itself – this ceaseless living and striving, this lively give and take which is the noblest thing in which man can participate, this universal intermeshing of countless wheels whose common driving force is freedom, and the beautiful harmony which grows from this. Everyone can say: “Whoever you may be, because you bear a human face, you are still a member of this great community. No matter how countlessly many intermediaries may be involved in the transmission, I nevertheless have an effect upon you, and you have an effect upon me [...] it is equally certain that there will come a time (it may take millions or trillions of years – what is time!) when I will draw you into my sphere of influence, a time when I will benefit you too and receive benefit from you, a time when my heart will be joined with yours by the loveliest bond of all – the bond of free, mutual give and take. (Some Lectures Concerning the Scholar’s Vocation, pp. 160-1)
Marx again
35. The right of man to private property is, therefore, the right to enjoy one’s property and to dispose of it at one’s discretion (à son gré), without regard to other men, independently of society, the right of self-interest. This individual liberty and its application form the basis of civil society. It makes every man see in other men not the realization of his own freedom, but the barrier to it. (On the Jewish Question, p. 229-30)
36. Only in community [with others has each] individual the means of cultivating his gifts in all directions; only in the community, therefore, is personal freedom possible [...] In a real community the individuals obtain their freedom in and through their association. (Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, Collected Works vol. 5, p. 78)
37. In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all. (Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, end of section 2)
Nota.
Ich selber bin natürlich zunächst auch über die Marx'schen Frühschriften, vor allem das Feuerbach-Kapitel der Deutschen Ideologie, auf den Gedanken gekommen, nach einem verborgenen logischen Bezug zur Philosophie Fichtes zu suchen. Aber das taugt doch nur als Anfangsverdacht. Bewähren musste es sich am Vergleich der Kritk der Politischen Ökonomie mit der Wissenschaftlehre.
Wen es übrigens wundert, dass ich an keiner Stelle Tom Rockmore erwähnt habe, dem kann ich sagen, dass dessen Buch Fichte, Marx and the German philosophical tradition zu meiner eigenen Arbeit gar nichts beigetragen hat. Ich habe es natürlich ganz am Anfang meiner Beschäftigung mit dem Thema gelesen. Doch auch Rockmore beschränkt sich auf die Frühschriften. Vor allem will er aber viel zu viel beweisen - so viel, dass es am Ende gar nichts mehr zu bedeuten hat: eine Linie, die von Plato über Spinoza zu Hegel führe, und eine andere, die von Aristoteles über Feuerbach zu Marx führt. Das ist erstens nichtssagend. Aber es ist zweitens und vor allem sehr, sehr oberflächlich.
J. E.